NUCLEAR FUSION REVIEW
Lefteris Kaliambos September 11, 2018 According to the various nuclear theories of the twentieth century the so-called Nuclear Fusion was belived incorrectly to be based on Einstein's hypothesis of the invalid rest energy. However after my paper "Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism" (2003) today it is well-known that all experiments of nuclear physics reject not only the nuclear structure models but also Einstein's relativity. (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY). In photo I am with Dr. Th. Kalogeropoulos (student of Einstein) at the nuclear conference held in NCSR “ Demoritos” (2002). He was very surprised when I told him that my discovery of the law of energy and mass modifies the invalid "mass-energy equivalence". For example the correct Bohr model (1913) rejects Einstein’s hypothesis of rest energy of special relativity (1905), because the energy of photon hν = 13.6 eV is due not to the conversion of the mass defect Δm = 13.6 eV/c2 to the energy of photon, but to the electric energy Δw = 13.6 eV of the proton-electron interaction. Therefore the mass defect Δm = 13.6 eV/c2 turns to the mass m = hν/c2 of the same photon. In the same way the gravitational energy δw in the core of the sun turns to the thermal energy δQ = 1.29 KeV corresponding to an average temperature of 15 million Kelvins with a kinetic energy of protons ΚΕ = 0.001 MeV. Whereas the mass defect δm = δw/c2 turns to the thermal mass δM = δQ/c2. In this case the new law of energy and mass is given by δw/δm = δQ/δM = c2 Historically, in an influential lecture Helmholtz proposed in 1854 that the origin of the sun’s enormous radiated energy is the gravitational contraction of a large mass. Later Kelvin was convinced that the sun’s enormous thermal energy was produced by the conversion of gravitational energy into heat. Unfortunately Einstein under his invalid quanta of fields without mass (Einstein photon) in his contradicting relativity theories violating this conservation law of energy introduced the hypothesis of the invalid rest energy according to which the radial energy of the sun is the result of the invalid conversion of mass to energy. However after the experiments of the hydrogen of the Bohr model which rejected the hypothesis of rest energy, Einstein later (1938) in his book “The evolution of physics” abandoned his strange ideas of rest energy and of the false curvature of space by recognizing that photons do have mass. Hence he wrote that the mass defect turns to the mass of photons in accordance with the conservation law of mass. Especially on page 208 he wrote: “Radiation travelling through space and emitted from the sun contains energy and therefore has mass; the sun and all radiating stars lose mass by emitting radiation.” Meanwhile, under the invalid relativity Eddington (1920) was the first to speculate that the source was fusion of hydrogen into helium, and later (1939) Hans Bethe tried to explain the energy of sun by proposing that one of the protons (p) could decay into neutron (n) by the beta plus decay given by p = n + e+ + ν+ Here e+ is the emitting positron with a mass of one electron corresponding to an energy of 0.511 MeV, while the ν+ is the emitting neutrino with a negligible mass. (NEUTRINO NATURE DISCOVERY). Note that after my discovery of nuclear force and structure the so-called proton-proton cycle is modified on the basis of the new law of energy and mass occurring under the quark-quark interaction. On the other hand under Einstein’s inconsistencies and after the important experiment of French and Tessman (1963) showing the fallacy of Maxwell’s fields, in 1993 Μ. Barone and F. Selleri organized the international conference “Frontiers of fundamental physic” where I presented my discovery of dipolic photons having energy E = hν and mass m = hν/c2 under the applications of the Coulomb and the Ampere laws based on Newton’s third law of instantaneous action and reaction. For example when the dipolic photon interacts at a distance with an electron we get dw/dm = c2 by calculating the instantaneous interaction in terms of the vectors of electric intensity Ey and the magnetic intensity Bz (intensity and false field), which operate at the same time and lead to the following equations of electromagnetism: Ey(-e) dy = dw Then after a time dt we get Bz(-e)(dy/dt) = Fm or Bz(-e)dy = Fm dt = dp = cdm. Since Weber showed experimentally that Ey/Bz = c we get dw/dm = c2 = hν/m This equation compared with the gravitational properties of light led to my discovery of unified forces, because in nature there exist only the fundamental forces of gravity and of electromagnetism governing also the nuclear structure.(Discovery of nuclear force and structure). The same equation led also to my discovery of the law of Photon-Matter Interaction given by hν/m = ΔE/ΔM = c2 because in the absorption of light by an electron (photoelectric effect and Compton scattering) the dipolic photons having mass contribute not only to the increase of the electron energy ΔΕ but also to the increase of the electron mass ΔΜ. Therefore in my paper of 2003 under my discovery of the new law of energy and mass I showed that in deuteron of parallel spin D = p(+1/2)..n(+1/2) the electromagnetic binding energy Δw = 2.2246 MeV of the proton-neutron interaction turns to the energy hν = 2.2246 MeV of photon, while the mass defect 2.2246 MeV/c2 = mass of 4.3534 electrons turns to the photon mass m = hν/c2. This is the well-established nuclear structure of deuteron with parallel spin, which could not be explained by the various nuclear structure models of the twentieth century. It is indeed unfortunate that in 1909 Bucherer after his experiments on the electrons of beta decay believed incorrectly that he confirmed Einstein’s relativity. Under this condition since Einstein became a famous scientist around the world, it was a great difficulty for him to revise officially his original papers.(EINSTEIN NUCLEAR PHYSICS). In fact, after my published paper of 2003 it was not difficult for me to reveal that the increase ΔΜ of the electron in the beta decay is due not to the relative motion of the electron with respect to a fallacious ether or to an observer, but to the real absorption of the mass defect Δm = mass of 2.53 electrons, when the unstable free neutron (n) of mass equal to 1838.68 electrons changes to the stable proton (p) of mass equal to 1836.15 electrons. Then after my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by n = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838.68 electrons p = +5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons I showed that the mass defect Δm = mass of 2.53 electrons corresponds to the energy (p-n) = 1.293 MeV or (p -n) = (ddd - dud) = 1.293 MeV because the unstable quark triad (ddd) of the unstable free neutron becomes a stable quark triad (dud) of the stable proton. ( UP AND DOWN QUARKS). However in deuteron the neutron cannot turn to proton because the binding energy Epn = 2.2246 MeV overcomes the energy of (ddd-dud) = 1.293 MeV. Also in free space the proton cannot turn to neutron, because the neutron is heavier than the proton. However in our early universe at a thermal energy Q = 1.804 MeV the proton could change into the neutron via the beta plus decay given by Q + p = n + e+ + ν+ or Q = ( n-p) + e+ + v+ Since the mass or the energy of neutrino is negligible we may write Q = 1.293 + 0.511 = 1.804 MeV That is, the thermal energy Q = 1.804 MeV was responsible for the formation of deuteron D, since p + n = p(+1/2)..n(+1/2) with a binding energy Epn = -2.2246 MeV giving the energy hν = 2.2246 MeV of the emitting photon. Today after my published paper of 2003 it is well-known that the gravitational thermal energy δQ = 1.29 ΚeV in the core of the sun is responsible for the process of the thermonuclear fusion of the so-called proton-proton cycle. Fusion reactions occur in the sun and in stars in which temperatures are in the order of 15 million Kelvins = 1.29 ΚeV = 0.001 MeV. However in MODERN PHYSICS (page 385) we read that one possible sequence is given by the following equation without explaining why the released energy of 0.42 MeV is smaller than the hν = 2.2246 MeV. That is p + p = D + e+ + ν+ + 0.42 MeV Here I clear that the kinetic energy EK = 0.001 MeV of the two protons due to the thermal energy δQ is responsible for the formation of the deuteron with a binding energy Epn = -2.2246 MeV. However the released energy of 0.42 MeV is smaller than the energy hν = 2.2246 MeV, which implies that the thermal energy δQ contributes to the released energy of 0.42 MeV under a new quantum phenomenon according to which in the beta plus reaction for the energy hν = 0.42 MeV is used a part of the binding energy of deuteron. Under this condition for the explanation of the released energy of 0.42 MeV I discovered the quantum fusion formula of the quantum physics given by δQ + Epn - 1.804 = hν Since δQ = 0.001 MeV, and Epn = 2.2246 MeV we get hν = 0.42 MeV. But for such a fusion reaction to take place, the kinetic energy of two protons must overcome the Coulomb repulsion Epp between them (potential barrier). In my paper of 2003 I showed that the two protons of He-4 because of the opposite spin provide a repulsive energy Epp = 0.867 MeV. However using the simple formula Epp= Ke/r we see that two protons at the shorter distance r = 2Rp provide a repulsive energy of about 0.6 MeV. Since the proton radius is Rp = 1.2 fm (MODERN PHYSICS page 323) we can calculate Epp for the shortest distance r = 2.4 fm to get Epp = 1.44/2.4 = 0.6 MeV. Nevertheless the fusion reaction is due to the fact that (i) the energies of protons at a given temperature have Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution so that there are always some protons with enough kinetic energy, and (ii) the kinetic energy of protons can tunnel through the potential barrier under the quantum phenomenon of tunneling. Also in MODERN PHYSICS (page 325) one reads that the nuclear attraction is based on the hypothetical charge independent nuclear force. '' In other words in the twentieth century it was believed incorrectly that the nuclear structure is based on hypothetical pn, pp, and nn nuclear attractions. However in my paper of 2003 I showed that two protons at the shortest distance r = 2.4 fm cannot form the so-called diproton and only the pn systems contribute to the electromagnetic nuclear force and structure. Nevertheless today many physicists continue to believe that the thermonuclear fusion is based on the invalid hypothesis of mass-energy equivalence. For example in chapter FUSION of the MODERN PHYSICS (page 385) we read: “The clue to the solution of this age-old mystery was the mass-energy equivalence of the special theory of relativity.” In fact, after my paper of 2003 we may write the two following two steps in which four protons can combine to form a helium nucleus (Structure and binding of He4 and He6): 1H + 2H = 3He + γ or p + p(+1/2)..n(+1/2) = pnp + γ 3He + 3He = 4He + 1H+ 1H or pnp + pnp = pnpn + p + p Moreover in MODERN PHYSICS (page 385) we read that the net result can be expressed by the single reaction equation without explaining the released energy of 24.68 MeV. That is 4 (1H) = 4He + 2e+ + 2ν+ + 24.68 MeV Here I clear that the binding energy of He-4 is very strong (E = -28.29 MeV) because the pn systems along the spin axis provide very strong pn bonds. Then for the explanation of the released energy of 24.68 MeV we may write 4(1H) = p + n + p + n = pnpn + 2e+ + 2ν+ + 24.68 MeV Since pnpn = He-4 = 28.29 MeV we may use the following '''quantum fusion relation' 2δQ + 28.29 - 2(1.804) = hν or 2(0.001) + 28.29 - 2(1.804) = 24.68 MeV Therefore the energy released in the fusion of four protons to form a helium nucleus must include the 2.04 MeV liberated by the electromagnetic interactions of the two positrons with two of the four hydrogenic electrons, yielding a total energy of 26.72 MeV. Nevertheless under the influence of relativity today many physicists continue to believe that the energy of 2.04 MeV is due to the invalid hypothesis of rest energy. In fact, the electromagnetic energy of the electron-positron interactions turns to the energy 4hν = 2.04 MeV of photons, while the mass of the positrons and electrons turns to the mass of photons in accordance with my discovery of the law of energy and mass. To conclude I emphasize that the fusion reactions in the so called proton-proton cycle are based on the new structure of nuclei governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism under my discovery of the law of energy and mass which replaces the invalid hypothesis of the conversion of mass to energy. Category:Fundamental physics concepts